Educational Policies and Practices Essay Example for Free

Educational Policies and Practices Essay â€Å"Change is a process, not an event. It can be planned or unplanned and can be influenced by forces inside and outside of the schoolhouse. † (http://wps. prenhall. com/chet_green_practicing_2/23/6137/1571248. cw/index. html). Current education reform has stressed the urgency of teacher learning in improving classroom education and expanding student success. Current education reform in the United States has increasingly described standard levels of mastery for learners and focused on holding schools responsible for student outcomes. As one approach for increasing student attainment, officials have zoned in on improving the quality of public school educators (Parise Spillane, 2010). Certain policy plans concentrate on the dimension involved in refining the quality of educators coming into the area of teaching through state accreditation exams, more rigorous degree requirements, and recruitment efforts. In addition to the aforementioned, increased responsibility and stress on schools involve learning and modification for many of the educators already working within this capacity, as they are pushed to apply new instructional methods and advances in order to promote and foster student achievement (Parise Spillane, 2010). Assessing the Condition: Loris High School Trevor Strawderman, principal of Loris High School, Horry County, South Carolina, reorganized educational structure to benefit the school. In 2005, Loris High School ranked in the bottom percentile among high schools, scholastically, in the state of South Carolina. Principal Strawderman knew that issues in the area of literacy plagued the school’s academic performance. Assessment statistics revealed that 74 percent of the 9th and 10th graders of the school were reading below grade level. As a result of this issue, dropout and class failings soared to extremely high figures (http://www. nassp. org/Content. aspx? topic=59746). Strawderman, the newly appointed principal at the time, and other leaders of the school were aware of this issue, but did not realize the severity until results were revealed from student assessments. It was determined that the majority of the 9th and 10th graders at the time were reading way below grade level. After examining the textbooks utilized in the school, it was discovered that the 9th and 10th grade level books were written for 10th/ 11th grade reading comprehension. Upon the discovery of the low reading skills, Strawderman met with faculty to inform them that changes were necessary to improve reading skills of the students. Data collected about the student reading assessments was Mr. Strawderman’s proof as he provided information for this needed change (http://www. assp. org/Content. aspx? topic=59746). Implementing Necessary Change The school’s leadership team began to read and study about ways to improve on reading. Through the study it was discovered that providing more reading would be the best solution. The leadership team identified a process that could be utilized to achieve the vision. Through the vision of Strawderman and the leadership team, a ho meroom reading initiative was put in place immediately. Two days for 50 minutes a week have been designated for this activity. Students were grouped by grade level and lexile level. Strawderman and his team stressed the importance of steering away negative connotations with this activity, and felt that grouping by lexile level was pertinent (http://www. nassp. org/Content. aspx? topic=59746). Challenges and Rewards As with change, Mr. Strawderman faced defiance by some faculty members. Comments like, â€Å"Some students are going to think this is stupid and childish,† were used to discourage this new activity. As the process began, aproximately $70,000 was spent on high interest inventory reading. Strawderman and his committee did all of the work, not putting the strain on the teachers with implementing this program. This process was made easy as possible for the teachers. After the program began, it was discovered that the students loved the program. The majority of the at-risk students enjoyed it the most. What was also discovered, is that every student may act is if they do not like to read, but they all want to know how to read (http://www. nassp. org/Content. aspx? topic=59746). Within this program celebrations were rendered and awards are given as incentives. This program provided an additional 33 hours of reading in the school for the year and has provided a positive outlook for the school’s reading deficit. Since Strawderman became principal, the school has made noteworthy and substantial cultural and meaningful changes that have led to effective progress for each student. Strawderman understood that the necessary changes implemented could not done by him solely. Along with making improvements for students, Strawderman also realized the importance in providing leadership and support for his staff members. â€Å"He envisioned a school of professional learning communities in which teachers worked together ‘to choose every day to make a difference in the lives of our students’ (http://www. assp. org/Content. aspx? topic=59746). First Order or Second Order Change? First and second order change are natural occurrences involved within settings of change. It has been reported that uninterrupted, first order change happens without interference to the system in place. Within this particular order of change the leader is involved in pushing for improvement within the productivity an d value of a school or program without making major alterations to what has been established among teachers and students. In addition, this conflict often faces less confusion and divergence (Green, 2013). Second order change, on the other hand, faces uneasy transitions because of change and interruption to the system in place. In this particular order of change the existing order is taken in another direction for the good of the school or program. Furthermore there are new objectives, as well as changes in structure and programs in which individuals are asked to function differently within their role (Green, 2013). Becoming principal of Loris High School, opened doors of opportunity for Trevor Strawderman to make necessary changes for the betterment of the school. Strawderman initially took some matters in his hand to push for this change by presenting data figures to faculty as proof of the situation in need. As a result of this new change every teacher was given a task to apply â€Å"student lexile levels from the Measures of Academic Progress -Reading (MAP-R) computerized assessments to gauge students’ mastery of basic reading skills† (http://www. nassp. org/Content. aspx? topic=59746). Because implementing these changes required disruption to the already established program curriculum, Strawderman and his team faced some defiance. This situation is reflective of the second-order change. The Good and the Bad Although the reading program at Loris High School has brought forth much success, negativity surfaced at the beginning stages of implementing this program. Mildly disgruntled teachers gave notion of their dislike of changing their already established curriculum without consulting them fully. Before allowing the situation to escalate with these faculty members, Mr.  Strawderman could have met with the teachers to answer questions and to address concerns about the immediate change once he brought it forward. (http://www. nassp. org/Content. aspx? topic=59746). Working collaboratively with faculty could have also presented a variety of innovative ideas. Michael Fullan’s reports on research indicates that institutionalization of modification and change is extremely challenging. Moreover, additional reports reveal that school improvements that are substantial and long-term rarely can be set, authorized or guided by organizations or individuals (Fullan, 1993). When change occurs in a school setting the following attitudes may arise: â€Å"teachers may feel a sense of in adequacy or lack of preparation, or they may fear the unknown or perceive a loss of power or control† (Green, 2013). Conclusion Through this assignment an abundance of useful information was grasped regarding leadership and instructional change. Due to the changes in time, it is pertinent for all leaders to foster the ideas of bringing forth instructional change in a school setting. The way children are educated must change because children, the world, and economics are changing daily. At times change is considered taboo and frightening. However, when handled effectively and efficiently, it may be the cure to an ailing situation. There is much confidence among the reorganizers of school and researchers in the field of education that enhancing the learning opportunities of practicing teachers will boost and develop teacher performance and progress to developmentally improved student outcomes (Parise Spillane, 2010).

Theories of nursing

Theories of nursing HLTEN508B – Apply reflective practice, critical thinking and analysis in health. Pre-unit reading and preparation Nursing theorists and theories Henderson The Nature of Nursing Model Introduced The Nature of Nursing Model. She identified fourteen basic needs. She proposed that role of the nurse is to assist the patients during when they are sick or well, in recovery and rehabilitation. She believed that nursing involves assisting the client in gaining independence as quickly as possible or assisting them to achieve peaceful death if recovery is no longer possible (Theoretical Foundations of Nursing, 2014). Roper A Model for Nursing Based on a Model of Living This model incorporates a life span approach, where the characteristics of the person are considered with respect to prior development, current level of development, and likely future development. In combination with the life span approach an independence/dependence category used. The model then incorporates a set of twelve activities of living (ADLs), which represent activities engaged in by individuals whether sick or well. Orem Self-Care Deficit Theory Defined nursing as â€Å"The act of assisting others in the provision and management of self-care to maintain/improve human functioning at home level of effectiveness.† (Theoretical Foundations of Nursing, 2014). Focuses on activities that adult individuals perform on their own behalf to maintain life, health and well-being. Has a strong health promotion and focus. Identified 3 related concepts: Self-care, Health and Nursing System Peplau Theory of Interpersonal Relations Defined nursing as â€Å"An interpersonal process of therapeutic interactions between an Individual who is sick or in need of health services and a nurse especially educated to recognize, respond to the need for help (Theoretical Foundations of Nursing, 2014). Nursing is a â€Å"maturing force and an educative instrument† Identified 4 phases of the Nurse Patient relationship Watson The Philosophy and Science of Caring Nursing is concerned with promotion health, preventing illness, caring for the sick, and restoring health. She defined caring as a nurturing way or responding the needs of a client. Caring accepts the person as what he/she may become in a caring environment (Theoretical Foundations of Nursing, 2014). Abdellah Twenty One Nursing Problems Established 21 problem areas to guide care and promote the use of nursing judgement. Introduced Patient – Centered Approaches to nursing model She defined nursing as service to individual and families; therefore the society. Furthermore, she theorized nursing as â€Å"an art and a science that moulds the attitudes, intellectual competencies and technical skills of the individual nurse into the desire and ability to help people, sick or well, and cope with their health needs† (Theoretical Foundations of Nursing, 2014). Explain the difference between a theory and a model? A theory is a group of related concepts that propose action that guide practice. Theories are composed of concepts, definitions, models, propositions and are based on assumptions. Whereas models, are representations that allow the concepts in nursing theory to be successfully applied to nursing practice. They may demonstrate how theory can be introduced into practice, for example, through the specific methods of assessment. What are the common themes in nursing theorist’s views on caring? Four concepts common in nursing theory that influence and determine nursing practice are: The person (patient) The environment Health Nursing (goals, roles, functions) What are the age and gender issues facing nurses today? Nursing in a male-dominated world Nursing is dominated by females and if often regarded as an oppressed profession. This gendered hierarchy of women in lower roles emphasizes male domination and marginalization of women in society (Cordon, 2014). The unequal power balance between physicians and nurses has resulted in nurses lacking the confidence to question doctors decisions and not speaking up in the workplace. Reason for this includes fearing conflict and stress (Cordon, 2014). Gender discrimination Nursing, in the past, has been seen as womens work because it is a caregiver role. Due to this, men who enter nursing may face with barriers and discrimination. For example, men who enter the nursing profession may be perceived as more feminine†. Male nurses may face the perception that they are gay (Cordon, 2014). Male nursing students or graduate nurses may also have less male role models in the profession as it is largely dominated by females. While both men and women in the nursing profession can be excellent clinical mentors, the male nurse may have some issues that he cannot comfortably discuss with female colleagues (Cordon, 2014). In the field of health define the following terms: a) Best practice Refers to nursing practices that are based on the â€Å"best evidence† available from nursing research. The goal of â€Å"best practices† is to apply the most recent, relevant, and helpful nursing interventions, based on research, in real-life practice. b) Philosophy The philosophy of healthcare is the study of ethics, processes and people which establish the maintenance of the health for human beings. c) Vision An aspirational description of what an organization would like to achieve or accomplish in future. d) Mission statement – A formal summary of the aims and values of an organization, or individual. How do the following Professional Standards of Practice apply to you as an Enrolled Nurse? a) ANMC code of conduct These are the principles guiding behaviour between colleagues, between staff and those receiving care. The Department of Health places high importance on maintaining patient confidentiality and protecting privacy and as enrolled nurses we must follow these standards to ensure that all sensitive documents including patients case notes are stored in a safe and secure area and discussions of personal information about clients/patients do not occur. b) ANMC code of ethics It is essential and important, as enrolled nurses, to ensure that the relationship between a patient/client and a health professional is safe, helpful and therapeutic and is always within professional boundaries as determined by the Code of Ethics. Standards include identifying the fundamental moral commitments of the profession, reflection on ethical conduct for professional and self-development and ethical practice. c) ANMC national Enrolled/Division 2 nurse competency standards The national competency standards for the enrolled nurse are the core competency standards by which your performance may be assessed to retain your license to practice as an enrolled nurse in Australia. As an enrolled nurse, these core competency standards provide you with the framework for assessing your competence. d) State/Territory Nurse Regulatory Nurses Act The state and territory nursing and midwifery authorities (NMRAs) to produce national standards – an integral component of the regulatory framework to help enrolled nurses and midwives deliver safe and competent care. It also keeps the public safe by ensuring the services they will receive are from competent nurses. e) State/Territory Nursing and Midwifery Regulatory Authority Standards of Practice The state and territory nursing and midwifery authorities (NMRAs) to produce national standards – an integral component of the regulatory framework to help enrolled nurses and midwives deliver safe and competent care. f) Scope of Practice decision making framework The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA) has endorsed national decision-making frameworks for both nurses and midwives. As enrolled nurses, these two flowcharts will assist us in our professional decision making through a structured and transparent process. It also provides us with and an evidence-based process (approved by the regulatory authority) in our decision-making that we may use in support/defence of our decisions should we be required to provide it. REFERENCE i. Theoretical Foundations of Nursing Virginia Henderson Bibliography: Theoretical Foundations of Nursing, (2014). Virginia Henderson. [online] Available at: http://nursingtheories.weebly.com/virginia-henderson.html [Accessed 15 Jul. 2014]. ii. Theoretical Foundations of Nursing Dorothea E. Orem Bibliography: Theoretical Foundations of Nursing, (2014). Dorothea E. Orem. [online] Available at: http://nursingtheories.weebly.com/dorothea-e-orem.html [Accessed 15 Jul. 2014]. iii. Theoretical Foundations of Nursing Hildegard E. Peplau Bibliography: Theoretical Foundations of Nursing, (2014). Hildegard E. Peplau. [online] Available at: http://nursingtheories.weebly.com/hildegard-e-peplau.html [Accessed 15 Jul. 2014]. iv. Theoretical Foundations of Nursing Jean Watson Bibliography: Theoretical Foundations of Nursing, (2014). Jean Watson. [online] Available at: http://nursingtheories.weebly.com/jean-watson.html [Accessed 15 Jul. 2014]. v. Theoretical Foundations of Nursing Faye G. Abdellah Bibliography: Theoretical Foundations of Nursing, (2014). Faye G. Abdellah. [online] Available at: http://nursingtheories.weebly.com/faye-g-abdellah.html [Accessed 15 Jul. 2014]. vi. Cordon, C. Structural Inequality and Diversity in Nursing | Minority Nurse Bibliography: Cordon, C. (2014). Structural Inequality and Diversity in Nursing | Minority Nurse. [online] Minoritynurse.com. Available at: http://www.minoritynurse.com/article/structural-inequality-and-diversity-nursing [Accessed 15 Jul. 2014]. Tabbner’s Nursing Care: Theory and Practice Tabbner’s Nursing Care 5th Edition: Rita Funnell, Gabrielle Koutoukidis, Karen Lawrence (2009)

Importance Of Semiotics In A Film Film Studies Essay

Importance Of Semiotics In A Film Film Studies Essay Semiotics in film is always an important and perplexing element in any picture. It is the    signification and communication of signs and symbols to develop a plot and define certain events that happen within the plot.    Popular Films such as The Sixth Sense and The Matrix have unbelievable amount of reference to aspects previously mentioned. The film The Sixth Sense uses great color and different shots to represent and imply meaning and patterns in the story. Where as The Matrix    is referenced more toward the Bible in this analysis and uses much religious references and color to develop its story and meaning.   In the supernatural thriller The Sixth Sense made by M. Night Shyamalan, extreme symbolism is used to mystify and personify the feeling of fright to the viewer.    Each symbol in the picture is an important contribution to the film. In this film, and eight year old boy named Cole is haunted by a gift of seeing ghosts.    Cole is terrified by visitations from these ghosts that want him to help them resolve things left undone in their previous lives.    Cole, with no one left to turn to, goes to a psychologist named Dr. Malcolm Crowe that helps him though out the movie deal with his haunting gift. One important symbol in this film is shadows and reflections.    Shadows since the beginning of time have been known to symbolize spirits.    At various points in the film, the camera reverts to shots of shadows that signify the presence of spirits around Cole. Doors and windows are also extremely important in this film.    Dr. Malcolm comes across many locked doors throughout the film.    Doors are said to signify entrance into other dimensions and realities.    Dr.    Malcolms encounters with locked doors are a way of clueing the audience in on his severed connection with the real world.    At one point in the film Dr. Malcolm is looking through a glass window at his wife with another man.    The glass is used to help signify the strain in Malcolm and his wifes relationship. The church, religious figurines and plastic toy soldiers are all also significant symbols in the film.    Cole searches for a place of peace to hide from the ghosts, and Malcolm directs him to the church.    Religious figurines such as figures of Jesus and various saints are focused on which all remind the viewer of death. The cold temperature also signifies the coming of sprits.    In each scene the temperature drops, and the characters breath is able to be seen when a ghost is going to approach Cole.    Possibly the most reoccurring and important symbol through this film is use of the color red.    I have heard various interpretations of red as a symbol in this film.    In probably the most semiotic filled scene, Cole is traveling up a spiral staircase following a red balloon.    In the shot, you can see Coles shadow on the wall of the staircase which we already have established as a symbol of relevant spirits.    The spiral staircase is said to symbolize the journey into the afterlife, while the red balloon is supposed to symbolize a spirit as well.    Another source of red in the film is the box that a dead girl gives to Cole to deliver to her family that has a video tape in it bound in a red ribbon.    We later find out that the video is a tape of her step mother poisoning her and when he delivers it to the family the murderer is dressed in what else but a bright red suit.    Coles safe place, the tent he built, is also red and also surrounded by figurines.    When Cole confides in his mother to tell his secret to, she is also dressed in a red sweater which suggests that she is now Coles safe haven.    Also, the church that I have previously spoken about has red doors, and the door knob of the basement that Malcolm is locked out of is red.   Ã‚   A totally different but interesting take on the use of the color red in the film is that in the Catholic religion red is worn on Pentecost.    Pentecost is said to be the birth of the church, and a time when Jesus could communicate and pass on his faith with the disciples.    Every time there seems to be an important conversation in the movie someone is either wearing red or surrounded by red which could signify important communication as Pentecost does to Catholics.    Another movie that holds great semiotic symbolism as The Sixth Sense is The Matrix.   There are several signs and symbols that occur during the movie that have references to Christianity. An important scene is where Neo is given a choice between two pills: one blue, which would enable him to wake up safe in his bed but never learn the truth about the Matrix; the other red, which would allow him to see how deep the rabbit-hole goes. Here the color red could be used to symbolize action. The pill is used to rescue him from the Matrix representing him being saved from the world. Another example is the name Trinity who is one of the main characters. This can be considered as a symbol for the Holy Trinity. The name of Morpheus ship is the Nebuchadnezzar. This is a reference to King Nebuchadnezzar mentioned in the book of Daniel in the Bible. In The Matrix, Zion is the underground home of the free humans. Zion is used as a generalized metaphor for a mythical city which could be considered to be the last hope for humanity. It receives mention in the Bible in the book of Revel ations. Zion is often used metaphorically, to symbolize Jerusalem and the Promised Land to come, in which God dwells among his chosen people. Neo is The One. The Oracle has prophesied that The One would hail the destruction of the Matrix, end the war and bring freedom to the people. In short, he is the saviour of the human race. This can be compared to the story of Christ. He was the Saviour who had been prophesied about and would bring about the freedom of mankind. Neo is an icon as he represents the saviour.Christ was betrayed by one of his own disciples, Judas Iscariot. In the film, the role of the betrayer is represented by Cypher. Towards the end of the movie, Neo is killed and comes back to life. This represents the Death and the Resurrection of Christ.    Aside from the religious views of the film there is reference to a childrens story. There are several references to Alice in wonderland by Lewis Carroll. When Morpheus first contacts Neo, he tells him to follow the White Rabbit. According to Lewis Carrolls book, Alice stumbles into Wonderland because she follows a White Rabbit. When Neo and Morpheus finally meet, Morpheus says I imagine that right now, youre feeling a bit like Alice. Hmm? Tumbling down the rabbit hole? He then gives him a choice between two pills one blue, which would enable him to wake up safe in his bed but never learn the truth about the Matrix; the other red, which would allow him to see how deep the rabbit-hole goes. Here again is a reference to Alice in Wonderland. Alice falls down the rabbit-hole into wonderland. It is important to note that Alices entire adventure is just a dream. This could have significance in the fact that Neo is right now trapped in a dream from which he has to awaken. The Matrix is not limited to just one philosophical issue alone. There are numerous issues and concep ts that can be drawn from the Matrix, including the purpose of life, the existence of a self and personal identity, and the question of the meaning of life    Film makers like M. Night Shyamalan and Andy and Larry Wachowski have made it thrilling to go back to the movies again when it comes to looking for symbolism and meaning in movies. As one watches movies over and over again, some may find that they missed things in the movie they hadnt noticed before. It is sometimes exciting and fulfilling to find and notice things you never knew were symbols later on.    Signifiers and symbols can make a film so much more interesting to watch and figure out, and thats precisely the function they hold in these movies.    Without the sensational symbolism, either film would not hold half the brilliance and genius that they have.    Semiotics is so obviously significant to the making of films.   The major fault in semiotic analysis is its complete dependence on societies pre-existing shared knowledge. The media relies on the fact that its viewers already know current background information on their topic of choice. Without this pre defined knowledge, signs and their signifiers mean nothing and are obsolete. However that doesnt mean one cannot pick up on these signs, it would just be a bit more difficult than it would for a person who has previous knowledge of how and what the creator is using. Semiotics can be used for any type of medium to produce a meaning.    It is not limited to just films for which this essay has used but, for radio, television, written text, and illustrated pictures along with text, such as comics. All have semiotics and all have its advantages to display meaning and use symbols best fit for the form.

Comparsen Between The Book And Movie Cujo Essay -- essays research pap

Watching the movie is so much more interesting, and it grabs your imagination by the hand. There are not that many things that are different in the movie. In fact the movie describes what?s going on a little better than the book. Basically the book seems like an out line of the whole story and the book gets into details a little more.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the beginning of the book it talks about Tad going to bed and how he?s a little nervous because he thinks there is a monster under his bed. His father tucks him into bed and says good night. About 10 minutes later Tad wakes up screaming his head off saying he sees a monster in his closet. The author doesn?t even describe what the ?monster? looks like. In the movie it shows wha...

Outsourcing in Intercollegiate Athletics Essay -- Sports, Athletes, FB

Division I intercollegiate athletic departments, especially those that are home to Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) teams, increasingly resemble front offices of professional sport organizations in regard to their mission and business operations. With huge operating budgets, state-of-the-art facilities, world-class athletes, and multinational corporate sponsors, these sport businesses strive to produce winning teams and profitable events every season. The outsourcing of marketing operations and rights is common practice in American college athletics today. According to Li and Burden (2002), more than one half of all NCAA Division I-A athletic programs have outsourced some or all of their marketing operations and rights to a growing number of nationally prominent outsourcing agencies. Among the operations commonly outsourced are the production of radio game broadcasts, production of radio call-in shows, coaches' television shows, sales of media and venue advertising, sales of "official sponsorship" rights to corporations, and production and management of Internet websites, etc. (Li & Burden, 2002). Outsourcing simply means acquiring services from an external organization instead of using internal resources (Butler, 2000). By using outsourced resources, organizations can gain a competitive advantage by utilizing contingent staff to accomplish strategic goals without incurring the fixed overhead. By focusing on the leading edge and highly specialized skill sets, outsourcing providers can often offer higher quality services, or at a lower price than the client organization. Typical reasons for outsourcing go beyond simple contingent staffing. Outsourcing providers are able to maintain economies of scale with regard to specialization (... ... bring the anticipated benefits, and in some instances can be a risky proposition (Chin, 2003). Villcocks and Lacity (1998) stated that among the possible disadvantages are the potential loss of control over critical functions such as timeliness and quality of service, difficulty in monitoring vendor performance, difficulty in explaining the business needs to vendors, the potential for loss of company secrets as well as intellectual property, and the high cost of outsourcing contracts. Schools also risk developing a dependency on outside agencies, lowering employee morale, loss of development skills for employees, and having to face the prospect of managing relationships that go wrong (Kakabadse & Kakabadse, 2000; Hayes, 2001). By outsourcing, not only do schools lose some of the personal touch in servicing their employees but their clients as well (Rombel, 2002).

Bioterrorism and Science: The Censorship of Scientific Journals Will Do More Harm than Good :: Essays Papers

Bioterrorism and Science: The Censorship of Scientific Journals Will Do More Harm than Good Science is based on the open communication of research and information. Scientists often build on the work and results that their colleagues have published in scientific journals. This process of incremental development prevents scientists from â€Å"reinventing the wheel† before continuing forward with original research. It stands, therefore, that the publication and distribution of research is necessary for future research to be productive. However, the dissemination of research has an adverse side effect in the current world. Scientific journals not only inform scientists about recent developments in their field of research, they also inform terrorists. It is possible for terrorists to use the same information found in scientific journals, intended for the benefit of the scientific community, to harm other people. The September 11th attacks force journal editors and reviewers to consider whether censorship is necessary to prevent further, more severe, terrorist attac ks. I believe, however, that broad censorship of scientific journals will hurt our own efforts at biodefense and health care more than it will hinder terrorists looking to make biological agents. In order to understand the current anxiety over bioterrorism we must look at the history of terrorism, both biological and conventional. Bioterrorism was a worry of American scientists and policy makers long before the attacks on September 11th. It has been estimated that, during the Cold War, the Soviet Union employed as many as 60,000 people in a biowarfare research program ([Anonymous] 2000). Ex-Soviet biowarfare researchers have reported the development of a strain of plague resistant to 16 different antibiotics by the Biopreparat, a clandestine network of research facilities located in Russia and Kazakhstan (Dennis 2001). It is certain that the US government was aware of the Soviet interest in biowarfare and thus also had biowarfare and defense programs. It wasn’t until Iraq used chemical weapons against the Kurds that we thought a modern state would actually employ chemical or biological weapons. Then, in 1995, the Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo released sarin gas on a subway, killing 12 ([Anonymous] 2001), and demonstrated that there was need for real concern about chemical and biological terrorism. In addition to the September 11th attacks, the American public was also subjected to anthrax attacks during the final months of 2001. As the first biological attacks on US soil in more than a decade, these emphasized that bioterrorism is still around and that the United States is still unprepared for a large-scale biological attack ([Anonymous] 2000).

Error Analysis Lab

Error Analysis Lab By: Lab Team 5 Introduction and Background: In the process of learning about the importance of measurement and data processing, lab teams were given prompts to design experiments as well as address the precision, accuracy, and error analysis within the experiment. Lab teams collaborated their data to find similarities and differences within their measurements. Through this process, students learned the importance of the amount of uncertainty as well as the different types of experimental errors that might have caused a margin of difference within the lab teams results.Measurement and data processing is a topic discussed in IB Chemistry SL; it is important within the scientific community as it discusses the reliability of the data presented. Uncertainty is used to determine a range of a value in a measurement or instrument. Uncertainty of an analogue instrument is plus or minus half of the smallest division present; while uncertainty of a digital scale is plus or mi nus the smallest division present. To identify the amount of uncertainty, significant figures (the digits in measurement up to and including the first uncertain digit) are used.Certain rules are used to discover the number of significant figures in a value: * 1-9 are always significant * included zeroes (1009= 4 significant figures) * leading zeroes never count (0. 023= 2 significant figures) * trailing zeroes after the decimal count (1. 9850= 5 significant figures) Experimental errors are the difference between recorded value and generally accepted or literature value. There are two types of experimental errors: random and systematic errors. Random errors are caused by the readability of a measuring instrument, the effects of changes in the surroundings, insufficient data, and observer misinterpretation.Systematic errors are errors that can not be reduced by repeating experiments or careful experimental design. These errors are caused by poor experimental design as well as improper measurement techniques. Accuracy is the difference between the experimental value and the accepted value. The greater the accuracy, the smaller the systematic error. Precision is the reproducibility of the experimental value. The greater precision, the less the random uncertainties. Purpose: Design laboratories based upon ideas of accuracy, precision and error analysis through creating a procedure and addressing the prompts.Materials: * 13. 5 cm x 10 cm sheet of aluminum foil * Ruler * Balance * Laptop * Micrometer * Silver Cube of Unknown Solid * H2O (via sink) * Timer * Thermometer (in degrees Celsius) * 500 sheets of paper * Caliper * 100 mL graduated cylinder * 10 mL graduated cylinder * 25 mL flask Procedures and Methodologies: Station One (find volume, mass, and density of an unknown cube): 1 Find the height of the silver cube of unknown solid using the micrometer. 2 Find the length of the silver cube of unknown solid using the micrometer. 3 Find the width of the silver cube of unknown solid using the micrometer. Find the mass of the silver cube of unknown solid using the balance. 5 Using the measured length, width and height of the cube of unknown solid, calculate the volume of the cube. 6 Divide the mass of the cube by the volume to find the density of the cube. 7 Using the laptop, identify the type of metal based on the density. Station Two (find a way to measure 10. 5mL of water): 1 Using the 10 mL graduated cylinder, measure out 10 mL of water. 2 Pour the measured water into the 100 mL graduated cylinder. 3 Using the 10 mL graduated cylinder, measure 0. 5 mL of water. Pour the measured water into the 100 mL graduated cylinder, combining with the previously measured 10 mL of water. Station Three (measure the thickness of single sheet of paper and volume of 500 sheets): 1 Measure the height of the stack of paper with the ruler in millimeters (mm). 2 Measure the length of the stack of paper with the ruler in mm. 3 Measure the width of the stack of pap er with the ruler in mm. 4 Calculate the volume of the stack of paper using the ruler’s dimensions in millimeters. 5 Calculate the thickness of one sheet of paper based on the ruler’s dimensions. Divide the height by number of sheets of paper [500 sheets]). 6 Repeat steps 1-5, instead using the caliper for measurements, but still measuring in millimeters. Station Four (calculate the volume of metal cylinder): 1 Using the caliper, measure the height of the cylinder in millimeters. 2 Using the caliper, measure the diameter of the cylinder’s circle in millimeters. 3 Using the volume of a cylinder formula (pi x radius squared x height), calculate the volume of the cylinder. Station Five (Calculate the thickness of aluminum foil): 1 Using a laptop, determine the accepted density for aluminum. Using the electronic balance, measure the mass of the sheet of aluminum foil. 3 Divide the mass by the accepted density to determine the volume. 4 Using the ruler, measure the d imensions (length x width) of the sheet of aluminium. 5 Divide the volume by the dimensions of the aluminum to determine the thickness. Station Six (Measure the temperature of the sink water for 120 seconds): 1 Turn hot water knob on. 2 Hold thermometer under running water. 3 Record temperature at 60 seconds. 4 Record temperature at 90 seconds. 5 Record temperature at 120 seconds. 6 Remove thermometer from water.Station Seven (Determine the circumference, density, and identity of wire): 1 Using the micrometer, find the diameter of the of the wire 2 Multiply the diameter by pi (3. 14) to find the circumference of the wire 3 Using the ruler, find the length of the wire 4 Using the balance, find the mass of the wire 5 Multiply the circumference and the height of the wire to determine the volume 6 Divide mass by volume, to determine the density of the wire. 7 Using the laptop, identify the type of metal based on the density Data Collection: Station One- The results from measuring the vo lume, mass, and density of a unknown cube .Using the density, the lab teams were able to identify the unknown cube. Group| Data| 1| volume=530 +- . 15mm3, mass= 7. 1+-. 05g, density=0. 12+-. 011gmm-3, lead| 2| volume=653+-. 01mm3, mass=7. 1+-. 1g, density=0. 01gmm-3, lead| 3| volume=580+-100mm3, mass 7. 14+-0. 001g, density= 0. 012gmm-3, lead| 4| volume=748+-0. 005mm3, mass= 7. 13g, density=0. 0009gmm-3, lead| 5| volume=727+-1mm3, mass=7. 14+-. 01g, density= . 01gmm-3, lead| 6| volume=621+-0. 05mm3, mass= 7. 15+-0. 01g, density=0. 0115gmm-3, lead| Station Two- Using the different graduated cylinders, lab teams measured out 10. 5 mL of water. Group| Data| 1| 10. +-. 5mL| 2| 10. 5+-. 1mL| 3| 10. 5+-. 05mL| 4| 10. 5+-. 5mL| 5| 10. 5+-. 5mL| 6| 10. 5+-. 5mL| Station Three- Provided with a ruler and micrometer, teams found the thickness of a single sheet of paper and the volume of 500 sheets of paper. Group| Data| 1| thickness=0. 01cm, volume=2950cm3| 2| thickness=0. 01cm, volume=6. 0cm3 | 3| thickness=0. 01cm, volume=3100cm3| 4| thickness=0. 0096cm, volume= 2900cm3| 5| thickness= 0. 01cm, volume= 3100cm3| 6| thickness= 0. 0098cm, volume=2950cm3| Station Four- Given a metal caliper, students were asked to find the volume of a cylinder. Group| Data| 1| volume= 39+-2cm3| 2| volume= 38. +-2cm3| 3| volume= 63+-4. 9cm3| 4| volume=39+-2 cm3| 5| volume=41+- 1cm3| 6| volume= 38. 8+-. 1cm3| Station Five- Students calculated the thickness of a piece of aluminum foil using a balance and ruler. Group| Data| 1| 0. 0018+-0. 0002cm| 2| 0. 01646+-0. 0002cm| 3| 0. 0017+-0. 00002cm| 4| 0. 0022+-0. 00005cm| 5| 0. 00175+-0. 00005cm| 6| 0. 0018cm| Station Six- Lab teams measured the temperature of sink water over 120 seconds. Group| Data| 1| Start= 23+-. 5C, 60=22+-. 5C, 90=22+-. 5C, 120=22. 5C| 2| Start=21. 0+-. 5C, 60=21. 2+-. 5C, 90=21. 5+-. 5C, 120=21. 7+-. 5C| 3| 60=21+-. 5C, 90=22+-. 5C, 120=23+-. 5C| 4| 23+-. 5C| | 60=29C+-. 5, 90=29+-. 5C, 120=29+-. 5C| 6| Start= 21. 5C, 60= 22C , 90= 22. 25C, 120= 22. 5C| Station Seven- Using a micrometer, balance, and ruler, groups were asked to calculate the circumference, density and discover the identity of a wire. Group| Data| 1| circumference=6. 3+-+. 5mm, identity= copper, density= 0. 0033gmm-3| 2| circumference= 1. 19pi mm, identity= copper, density= 0. 011gmm-3| 3| circumference= 3. 14mm, identity= copper, density= 0. 13gmm-3| 4| circumference= 3. 93mm| 5| circumference= 3. 14 mm, identity= copper, density= 0. 13gmm-3| 6| circumference= 1. 23pi mm, identity= copper, density= 0. 307gcm-3|Error Analysis: Station 1 (find volume, mass, and density of an unknown cube) In this particular station, there are no identified outliers. While the mass and density were rather close in value, there was no close range in the measurement of the volume of the unknown cube. This can be seen in the graphs below. Some random errors that may have caused this lack of precision in finding the volume of the unknown cube are misreadings of the instruments, changes in the environment of the experiment, the number of significant figures used, and the experimenter approximating a reading. Station 2 (find a way to measure 10. 5mL of water)In this station, there were two identifies outliers. This included Group 2 and Group 3. They were identified as outliers because of the amount of uncertainty. This two groups had a rather small amount of uncertainty unlike the other four groups with identical amounts of uncertainty. This can be seen in the graph below. The error that would have caused the amount of uncertainty is systematic because water will have clinged to the sides of the graduated cylinder as it was emptying. Another reason it was a systematic error was the fact that too much water could have been added to the graduated cylinder as it was filled.Station 3 There is only one large outlier within this station. In measuring the volume, Group 2 measured the volume to be 6. 0 cm3 while all other groups said the volume was around 3000cm3. This is such a huge gap that it would not be counted as a valuable measurement. Errors that could have occurred in this lab could have been random like the mismeasurement of the volume. The error could have also occurred by the misinterpretation of the question or prompt given. Station 4 The outlier in this station is group 3 with a Station 5 Station 6 Station 7Conclusion and Evaluation: In result of the preformed lab, our team learned the importance of determining error as well as preventing the majority of this error. The large range of results most likely was a result of systematic error. This can be concluded because there were no set directions for each station, and a different procedure could have been used by each lab team. Another source of error can be seen in the difference in sig figs used between groups. Random error most likely was a result of the unfamiliar tools that were used for the first time by many students.